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| 1 |
課程簡介
Introduction |
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| 2 |
柏拉圖，《對話錄：申辯篇》
Plato, Apology |
蘇格拉底被控以哪些罪名? 是哪些人提出控訴?
What are the charges (formal and informal) made against Socrates? Who is making the charges?
蘇格拉底如何為自己辯護?
How does Socrates defend himself against the charges?
蘇格拉底說他不是一個會說話的人，他是認真的嗎？
Socrates says he is not at all a clever speaker. Does he really mean this?
蘇格拉底在什麼層次上算是一個好的公民？
In what sense is Socrates a good citizen, if at all? |
| 3 |
柏拉圖，《對話錄：克里托篇》
Plato, Crito |
蘇格拉底為了解釋他為何應該要遵守法律甚至包括他的死刑在內，而對克里托提出有關法律的論證是什麼?
What are the arguments of the 'Laws' that Socrates presents to Crito for why he should obey the Laws, including his death sentence?
這些有關法律的論證說服力如何?如果你認為他們不具說服力，你認為蘇格拉底為什麼要接受法律的統治?
How persuasive are the arguments of the Laws? If you think they are not persuasive, why do you think Socrates accepts the ruling of the Laws?
誰是蘇格拉底在克里托篇中的真正聽眾?是克里托嗎?（我們對於克里托的瞭解是什麼?他的性格是什麼?）是雅典嗎?
Who is Socrates's real audience in the Crito? Is it Crito? (What do we know about Crito? What is his character?) Is it Athens?
法律與正義的差異:法律是正義的嗎?如果它們是不正義的?那又為什麼應該要遵守它們?
Distinction between law and justice: Are the Laws just? If they are unjust, why should one obey them, if at all? |
| 4 |
亞里斯多德《尼可馬赫倫理學》
Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics |
無
no questions |
| 5-6 |
亞里斯多德，《政治學》
Aristotle, Politics |
第一卷（全部）
Book 1 (Entire)
亞里斯多德如何界定一件事物的本質，當他說「人天生是政治的動物。」他的意思是什麼？人和動物的區別是什麼？
How does Aristotle define the nature of a thing? What does he mean when he says that "man is by nature a political animal"? What distinguishes man from other animals?
亞里斯多德思考家庭中的各種關係：主人和奴隸、丈夫與妻子、父與子。亞里斯多德為哪一種關係辯護？如何辯護？
Aristotle considers different relations within the household: master and slave, husband and wife, and father and children. What kind of slavery does Aristotle defend? How does he defend it?
在第一卷後半中討論到主奴、男女與父子關係時，亞里斯多德認為”幾乎萬事萬物都因其本性而統治或被統治著”及”德性乃為所有人所共有”。則奴隸與女人的德性是什麼?這種統治在不同關係中又有何不同?
Later in Book 1, in discussing relations between master and slave, male and female, and father and children, Aristotle states that "almost all things rule and are ruled according to nature" and that "excellence of character belongs to all of them" (Book 1, chapter 13). What are the excellences of slaves and women? How does the kind of rule differ in each case?
亞里斯多德區分兩種致富的方法：一種是家務管理的一部份，另一種則是零售貿易，這兩種之間有何不同?
Aristotle distinguishes between two types of wealth acquisition: that for the sake of household management and retail trade. What is the difference between the two?
第二卷（1-5章）
Book 2 (Chapters 1-5)
亞里斯多德認為，蘇格拉底為柏拉圖的《理想國》一書解釋，倡議一個城邦若能盡可能一致是最好的，且蘇格拉底也提出應該要禁絕家庭與私有財產而使妻子、小孩與財產皆屬於共有。在亞里斯多德的觀點中，這些建議有何錯誤?
Aristotle considers Socrates's supposition in Plato's Republic that it is best for the state to be as unified as possible and Socrates's proposals that the family and private property be abolished such that wives, children, and property were owned in common. What, in Aristotle's view, is wrong with these proposals?
第三卷（全部）
Book 3 (Entire)
在第三卷中，亞里斯多德企圖尋找一個城邦是如何形成的，他首先認為一個城邦是由公民所組成的，什麼是公民?公民的德性是什麼?一個良善的人與一個良善的公民又有何不同?誰能被視為一個公民?
In Book 3, Aristotle seeks to determine what a state is. He first considers what the state is composed of: citizens. What is a citizen, and what are the excellences of a citizen? What is the difference between a good man and a good citizen? Who is considered a citizen?
正確的政體有哪些不同種類?這些種類中有哪些不同的原則作為基礎?正確政體種類的”變體”有哪些?
What are the different "true" forms of government? What are the different principles upon which each is based? What are the "perversions" of the "true" forms of government?
當亞里斯多德說”公正…被認為是平等--但並非對於所有人而言皆如此，而僅是對於那些彼此平等的人而言”他的意思是什麼?順便思考他在第三卷12章中關於吹笛師的討論。
What does Aristotle mean by "justice is…equality-not, however, for all, but only for equals." (Book 3, chapter 9) Consider also his discussion of flute-players in Book 3, chapter 12.
城邦的目標是什麼?它又為了什麼而存在?
What is the purpose of the state? For what sake does it exist? (Book 3, chapter 9)
第四冊（1-13章）
Book 4 (Chapters 1-13)
什麼是理論上最佳或最完美的政體形式?又對大多數城邦而言，哪種政體實際上最為適合?
What is the best or perfect form of government in the abstract? What form of government is actually the best for most states? (See, in particular, Book 4, chapters 1, 7, and 11)
民主政體與寡頭政體有何不同?這兩者其中又可分為哪些不同的種類?
What is the difference between democracy and oligarchy? What are the different types of each?
什麼是共和政體或憲政政體?為什麼亞里斯多德認為共和政體是最佳且可行的政體?
What is "polity" or "constitutional government"? Why does Aristotle think that polity is the best practical form of government?
第五卷（1-5章,第8章）
Book 5 (Chapters 1-5, 8)
革命的主要原因是什麼？
What are the primary causes of revolutions?
政體如何維持或保存？
How can political regimes be preserved?
第六卷（1-5章）
Book 6 (Chapters 1-5)
民主政體是建立在怎樣的原則之上？民主政體的特徵是什麼？
What is the principle upon which democracy is based? What are the characteristics of a democracy?
在討論民主政體的不同種類時，亞里斯多德宣稱最好的民主是由農民組成的，而最差的民主乃是彼此共同分享財產。他為什麼會如此認為?
In discussing the varieties of democratic regimes, Aristotle states that the best type of democracy is one composed of an agricultural population, and the worst type is one in which "all share alike." Why does he think this?
第七卷（全部）
Book 7 (Entire)
亞里斯多宣稱最幸福的生活就是”具有德性的生活”。他的意思是什麼? 為了達到這種生活有哪三種東西是一個人所需要的?
Aristotle claims that the best life is the "life of excellence." What does he mean by this? What are the three different types of goods that a person needs in order to lead such a life?
亞里斯多德如何回應思辨的生活（哲學家的生活）與主動實踐的生活（政治家的生活）何者才是最好的生活這個問題?
How does Aristotle respond to the question of whether the contemplative life (the life of the philosopher) or the active life (the life of the statesman) is the best life?
個人最好的生活是否與城邦最好的生活相同?
Is the best life for the individual the same as the best life for the city?
最好或最理想的城邦需要哪些必要的條件?（誰應該被包含在內?誰不應被包含?公民應該具備哪些特質?城邦的大小應該為何?）
What are the conditions necessary for the best or ideal state? (Who should be included? Who excluded? What should be the character of the citizens? What should be its size?)
亞里斯多德認為”有三種東西可以使人更好更具有德性；它們是本性，習慣與理性（第七冊第13章）這些東西分別如何使人變好?
Aristotle states, "There are three things which make men good and excellent; these are nature, habit, and reason" (Book 7, chapter 13). How do each of these things make men good?
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| 7 |
馬基維里，《君王論》
Machiavelli, The Prince |
馬基維里將政體分為兩種：君主政體和共和政體。君主政體有哪幾種類型？
Machiavelli categorizes political regimes into two main types: principalities and republics. What are the different types of principalities?
在《君王論》的六到九章裡，馬基維里探討了建立新的君主政體的不同方式：依靠一個人的武力與才能(美德)、藉他人之力或好運、透過邪惡之道，或者透過公民的支持。他舉證哪些人是依靠自己的武力與才能(美德)建立新王國？他所說的才能（美德）指的是什麼？例如：凱薩˙波西亞如何展現這類才能？（參見第七章）波西亞和西西里島人阿加索克里斯有何不同？在馬基維里的觀點中，誰較缺乏這種才能？（參見第八章）
In chapters 6-9 of The Prince, Machiavelli discusses different ways of founding new principalities: through one's own arms and "skill" (virtù), through arms and the fortunes of others, through wickedness, or through the support of fellow citizens. What are some of the examples he gives of men who founded new principalities through their own skill (virtù)? What does he mean by "skill" (virtù)? For example, how did Cesare Borgia display this skill? (see chapter 7) What distinguishes Borgia from Agathocles the Sicilian, who lacked this skill in Machiavelli's view? (see chapter 8)
”一位君王除了研究戰爭、戰術、和軍隊紀律外，並不應該再有別的目的或思想…”（14章,124頁）為什麼馬基維里如此重視軍事藝術?
"A prince…must not have any other object nor any other thought, nor must he take anything as his profession but war, its institutions, and its discipline…" (chapter 14, p. 124). Why does Machiavelli attach so much importance to military art?
為什麼對君王而言被懼比被愛好？
Why is it better for a prince to be feared than loved? (see chapter 17)
馬基維里在《君王論》全書中不斷的提到「命運」， 譬如說，他提及有些君王「藉由他們自身的才能而非機運」獲得他們的王國（93頁）、「機運決定了我們的一半行動」（159頁），還有「魯莽比謹慎更好，因為機運很像女子，你如果想控制她需先以暴力征服她」（162頁）馬基維里所指的「機運」是什麼意思？
Machiavelli refers to "Fortune" throughout The Prince. He says, for example, that some princes acquired their principalities "by means of their own skill and not because of Fortune…" (p. 93), that "…Fortune is the arbiter of one half of our actions…" (159) and that "…it is better to be impetuous than cautious, because Fortune is a woman, and it is necessary, in order to keep her down, to beat her and to struggle with her" (162). What does he mean by "Fortune"? |
| 8-9 |
馬基維里，《李維羅馬史論》
Machiavelli, The Discourses on Livy |
馬基維里探討羅馬和斯巴達的共和政體，他認為哪一個可以當作共和政體的模範？為什麼？
Machiavelli discusses both the Roman and Spartan republics. Which does he hold up as the model for republics, and why?
為什麼人民和貴族間的衝突有助於維護共和政體內的自由？（參見《李維羅馬史疏義》第一卷第四章）
How does conflict between the people and the nobility help preserve freedom within republics? (see Discourses, Book 1, chapter 4)
馬基維里如何批評基督教教會？在馬基維里的觀念中，宗教在政治中應該扮演怎樣的角色？（參見《李維羅馬史疏義》第一卷第十一、十二章，第二卷第二章）
How does Machiavelli criticize the Christian church? What, in Machiavelli's view, should be the role of religion in politics? (see Discourses, Book 1, chapters 11-12; Book 2, chapter 2)
在馬基維里的觀點中是否存在著對政治的道德限制？
Are there any moral constraints on politics in Machiavelli's view?
馬基維里如何捍衛政府的共和形式？共和政體為何比君主政體更令人嚮往？
How does Machiavelli defend the republican form of government? In what ways is a republic more desirable than a principality? |
| 10-12 |
霍布斯，《利維坦》
Hobbes, Leviathan |
霍布斯如何描述人性的特質？人類的本能需要是什麼？人類渴望什麼？如果有的話，什麼是他們所謂的「Summum Bonum」（拉丁文的「至善」）
How does Hobbes characterize human nature? What are the drives or motives of human beings? What do they desire? What, if anything, is their Summum Bonum (greatest good)?
霍布斯如何描述人類自然狀態的特質？就什麼意義而言人在自然中是平等的？為何自然狀態是一種戰爭的狀態？在自然狀態中人會被約束嗎？
How does Hobbes characterize the "NATURALL CONDITION of Mankind"? In what sense are men equal in the state of nature? Why is the state of nature a state of war? Do men have obligations in the state of nature?
霍布斯如何理解自由的意義？（參見14章和21章）
What is Hobbes's understanding of liberty? (see chapters 14 and 21)
自然法則是什麼?
What are the Laws of Nature?
契約是什麼?契約是否必然源於恐懼?你同意嗎?
What is a contract? Are contracts entered into by fear obligatory? Do you agree?
公共利益如何形成？霍布斯如何合理化政治權威的存在？
How is a commonwealth instituted? How does Hobbes justify political authority?
霍布斯主張絕對且不可分割的王權。他如何為絕對的王權辯護?王權的權力有哪些?
Hobbes argues for absolute, indivisible sovereignty. How does he defend absolute sovereignty? What are the rights of the sovereign?
如果王權的權力有限制，限制為何?
What, if any, are the limits on the power of the sovereign?
霍布斯主張沒有公共利益就沒有財產。他為何如此認為?（24章）你對於這項論證有何看法?
Hobbes argues that where there is no commonwealth there is no property. Why does he think this? (chapter 24) What do you think of this argument?
霍布斯對於懲罰的觀點為何?懲罰所應有的目的為何?（28章）
What is Hobbes's view of punishment? What purpose should punishment serve? (chapter 28) |
| 13-15 |
洛克，《政府論次講》
Locke, Second Treatise |
自然狀態
State of Nature
洛克如何描述自然狀態?當他說每個人都享有充當自然法之執行人的權利時，他的意思是什麼?自然狀態與戰爭狀態的差別是什麼?
How does Locke characterize the state of nature? What does he mean when he says that every man has a right to "be executioner of the law of nature"? What is the difference between the state of nature and the state of war?
洛克對於自然狀態的觀點與霍布斯如何不同?
How is Locke's view of the state of nature different from Hobbes's view?
私有財產
Private Property
洛克在《政府論次講》的第五章討論了私有財產的起源，他說上帝將世界給予人類所共有。我們要如何連結「人類共有」的財產到私有財產?私有財產是如何產生的?又私有財產的正當性如何建立?
Locke discusses the origins of private property in chapter 5 of the Second Treatise. He states that God has given the earth to "mankind in common" (18). How do we get from property of "mankind in common" to private property? How does private property originate? What justifies private property?
私有財產的累積有任何限制嗎?
Are there any limits on the accumulation of private property?
洛克主張勞動”賦予萬物不同的價值”。他比較了一英畝種植煙草或是糖的土地與一英畝毫無農作的土地，並認為是勞動的進步大幅增加了土地的價值。事實上，在有利於人生活的土地產品中，十分之九是勞動的結果。你認為這個觀點如何?
Locke argues that it is labor that "puts the difference of value on everything." He compares an acre of land planted with tobacco or sugar and an acre of land "without any husbandry upon it," and argues that the "improvement of labour makes the far greater part of the value." In fact, of the products of the earth useful to the life of man, nine-tenths (even ninety-nine hundredths) of the value of the products is derived from labor. (See p. 25) What do you think of this view?
政府
Government
什麼是政治權力正當化的基礎?多數人的同意與意志在洛克對於政治權力的說明中扮演了什麼樣的角色?
What justifies political obligation? What role do consent and the will of the majority play in Locke's account of political obligation?
與霍布斯相反，洛克反對絕對的君權:絕對的君權雖被某些人視為是世界上唯一的政體，實際上卻是與公民社會相矛盾的，同時也不可能轉變為公民政府。他為什麼會如此認為?
In contrast to Hobbes, Locke opposes absolute monarchy: "absolute monarchy, which by some men is counted the only government in the world, is indeed inconsistent with civil society, and so can be no form of civil government at all" (48). Why does Locke think this?
政府的最主要目標或目的是什麼?你認為洛克在嘗試說明私有財產的保存是政府的正當職責時是否被誤導?
What is the primary end or purpose of government? Do you think Locke was misguided in trying to account for the legitimate functions of government in terms of the preservation of property?
政府有哪些不同權力?這些個別權力的功能是什麼?為什麼立法權乃是最高的權力?
What are the different powers of government, and what are the functions of each? Why is the legislative power supreme?
何時反抗政府的革命會是正當的?
When are rebellions against government justified? |
| 16-17 |
盧梭，《論人類不平等的起源和基礎》
Rousseau, Discourse on Inequality |
盧梭主張自己的研究方法乃”推測的歷史”。他的意思是什麼?
Rousseau speaks of his method as "conjectural history." What does he mean by this?
盧梭與霍布斯同樣認為人並非天生具有政治性，但是盧梭認為霍布斯與其他曾經描述過自然狀態的哲學家犯了相同的錯誤：霍布斯認為自然人所擁有的熱情與需求只有在理性與政治社會出現後才能獲得。則盧梭對於自然或政治性出現之前的人的觀點為何?
Rousseau shares with Hobbes the view that man is not by nature political, but Rousseau thinks that Hobbes commits the same fallacy as other philosophers who have written on the state of nature: Hobbes attributes to natural man the passions and needs which he could only have acquired after the rise of reason and political society. What then is Rousseau's view of natural or pre-political man?
在區別人與其他動物時，盧梭指出自由意志與人求取完備的能力或”求取完備性”乃是不同之處，盧梭對於個人意志的概念與霍布斯有何不同?盧梭認為求取完備性是”所有人類不幸的根源”，他為何如此認為?
In distinguishing between man and all other animals, Rousseau points to free will and man's faculty for self-perfection or "perfectibility." How does Rousseau's idea of individual will differ from Hobbes's? Rousseau states that perfectibility is "the source of all man's misfortunes" (45). Why does he think this?
在追溯人類之間不平等的歷程時，盧梭從社會發展、法律建立與財產權到獨裁政體，這樣的過程究竟如何發生?人的自尊與希望得到尊重的慾望在這些過程中又扮演了怎樣的角色?這些問題又是如何發生?他們要如何導致自足的喪失?政府如何建立?又在盧梭的觀點裡為何它是不正當的?
In tracing the "progress of inequality" among men, Rousseau moves from the development of society and the establishment of law and the right to property to despotism. How exactly does this "progress" occur? What role does man's pride and desire for esteem play in this "progress"? How did they arts emerge, and how did they lead to the loss of self-sufficiency? How was government established, and why, in Rousseau's view, is it illegitimate? |
| 18-19 |
盧梭，《社會契約論》
Rousseau, Social Contract |
盧梭在社約論中的目標是展現政治統治會如何正當地產生，為了提供一個答案，他利用社會契約的概念。他對於《社會契約論》的構想乃基於全意志的概念。什麼是全意志?我們又如何從個人意志推演至全意志?全意志與眾人擁護的總意志又有何差異?
Rousseau's aim in the Social Contract is to show how political rule can be made legitimate. In providing an answer, he draws on the idea of the social contract. His conception of the social contract is based on his notion of the general will. What is the general will? How do we get from individual wills to the general will? Is his distinction between the general will and the will of all defensible?
盧梭對於自由的想法為何?他說在進入我們都被全意志統治的公民社會時，我們會喪失自然的自由而得到公民與道德的自由。自然、公民與道德的自由有何不同?
What is Rousseau's conception of liberty? He says that in moving into the civil state in which we are governed by the general will, we lose our natural liberty and gain civil and moral liberty. What is the difference between natural, civil, and moral liberty?
盧梭認為”無論是何人拒絕遵守全意志都將會被眾人強迫其遵守，他將會被強迫得到自由。”你對於這段論述有何看法? 這是否是對於自由的背叛?
Rousseau states, "…whoever refuses to obey the general will be forced to do so by the entire body…he will be forced to be free" (150). What do you make of this statement? Is this a betrayal of liberty?
盧梭主張主權是不能讓與也不可分割的，誰是主權?為什麼主權不能讓與也不可分割?主權權力的限制為何?
Rousseau argues that sovereignty is inalienable and indivisible. Who is the sovereign? Why is sovereignty inalienable and indivisible? What are the limits on sovereign power?
盧梭如何定義政府?人民與政府之間的關係為何?他是否較偏好某種形式的政體（君主政體、貴族政體或民主政體）而多於其他?為什麼或為什麼不?
How does Rousseau define government? What is the relationship between the people and government? Does he favor one form of government (monarchy, aristocracy, or democracy) over others? Why or why not?
什麼是公民宗教?又公民宗教的目的為何？
What is civil religion, and what purpose does it serve? |
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馬克思，《論猶太人問題》、《一八四四年經濟學哲學手稿》
Marx, "On the Jewish Question," and "1844 Manuscripts" |
〈論猶太人問題〉第26-52頁
"On the Jewish Question", pp. 26-52.
馬克思所提到的問題是猶太人的解放如何完成，自由主義者主張政教分離（去除宗教對於公民的限制）。曾是黑格爾門生的哲學家布魯諾˙鮑威爾認為猶太人必須捨棄他們的宗教才能夠達到解放。馬克思認為自由主義和鮑威爾的解釋有怎樣的問題？馬克思所指的「解放」是什麼？「政治解放」和「人的解放」兩者有何相異之處？
The question that Marx addresses is how the emancipation of the Jews could be achieved. Liberals argued for separation of religion and politics (i.e. remove civil disabilities based on religion). Bruno Bauer, a philosopher who was a student of Hegel's, argued that emancipation of the Jews required that they renounce their religion. What does Marx think is wrong with both the liberal solution and Bauer's solution? What does Marx mean by emancipation? What is the difference between "political emancipation" and "human emancipation"?
作品的第二部分，馬克思探究猶太人的本質。他認為宗教生活的內容提供了某些社會問題的線索，他說明猶太人在基督教社會中所採取的社會形式是對金錢的崇拜，這正是商業社會中基督教物質生活的本質。對金錢的崇拜在基督徒的商業社會中有何不妥？他所說的「將社會從猶太主義中解放」是什麼意思？
In the second part of this work, Marx explores the nature of Jewishness; he thinks that the content of religious life provides clues to the social problems that give rise to religion. He says that the social form that Jewishness takes in Christian societies is worship of money, which is also the reality of Christian material life within commercial society. What is wrong with the worship of money at the heart of Christian commercial society? What does he mean when he calls for "the emancipation of society from Judaism"?
〈一八四四年經濟學哲學手稿〉第70-81頁
"Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844", pp. 70-81.
在標題為「異化勞動」的這一章節裡，馬克思探討四個層次的異化：勞動者與產品的異化、勞動者與勞動實踐的異化、人的本質的異化（馬克思認為使得人為人的本質是創造能力以及反思創作之集體本質的能力）以及人與人的異化。馬克思所說的異化是什麼意思？異化的勞動力跟私有財產有何關係？
In the section titled "Estranged Labor," Marx discusses four aspects of alienation: alienation of the laborer from his product, alienation of the laborer from the act of production, the alienation from man's species being (what makes man a "species being" for Marx is the ability to create socially and reflect on the collective nature of such creative activity), and alienation of man from man. What does Marx mean by alienation? What does alienated labor have to do with private property? |
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馬克思，《共產黨宣言與資本論選讀》
Marx, "Communist Manifesto" and Selections from Capital |
〈共產黨宣言〉第473-491頁
"Manifesto of the Communist Party", pp. 473-491.
這作品由馬克思與恩格斯共同撰寫並在1848年這個革命的年代出版。其中，馬克思和恩格斯試著連結他們對歷史發展的解釋和革命政治的前景。他們指出了歷史發展的幾個階段？我們如何從一個階段前進到下一個階段？馬克思說「資產階級……製造了自身的掘墓者」這是什麼意思？無產階級在這個歷史發展的進程中扮演著怎樣的角色？
This work was written jointly with Frederick Engels and published in the revolutionary year of 1848. In it, Marx and Engels sought to connect their account of historical development to the prospects for revolutionary politics. What different stages of historical development do they identify? How do we move from one stage to another? What does Marx mean when he says, "[T]he bourgeoisie…produces, above all, …its own grave-diggers" (p. 483)? What is the role of the proletarian class in this account of historical development?
《資本論》，第302-308頁、319-343頁、407-419頁）Capital, pp. 302-8, 319-43, 361-84, 407-19.
在作品中，馬克思解釋了在《1844手稿》當中道德辯證背後的政治經濟學。馬克思如何定義下列辭彙；商品、使用價值、交換價值？
In this work, Marx provides the political economy behind the moral arguments of the 1844 Manuscripts. How does Marx define the following terms: commodity, use-value, and exchange-value?
勞動力是一種商品，和其他商品不同的是，勞動力創造交換價值。勞動力的這種特質可以解釋資本主義體系其利益的來源。產品的使用價值和社會製造它所需要勞動時間兩者有何關係？
Labor-power is a commodity; unlike all other commodities, labor-power creates exchange-value. This unique feature of labor-power explains the source of profits in a capitalist system. What is the relationship between the exchange value of a product and the labor time socially necessary to produce it?
什麼是商品拜物教（Fetishism of commodities）？它的來源為何？
What is the Fetishism of commodities? What are its origins?
絕對的剩餘價值與相對的剩餘價值兩者有何差別？什麼是剝削（exploitation）？馬克思如何計算剝削的程度？
What is the difference between absolute and relative surplus value? What is exploitation, and how does Marx calculate the rate of exploitation? |
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托克維爾，《民主在美國》
Tocqueville, Democracy in America |
基於1830年在美國的旅行，托克維爾一個重要的觀察是美國人乃「生而平等」，請問這是什麼意思？
Based on his travels through America in 1830, one central observation that Tocqueville made was that Americans were "born equal." What did he mean by this?
托克維爾如何區分集權政府與行政集權？為什麼民主國家較容易受到「行政集權」的羈絆？他認為什麼乃是美國去除行政集權的政治結果？
How does Tocqueville distinguish between governmental and administrative centralization? Why are democratic nations more likely to fall under the "yoke of administrative centralization"? What did he see as the political effects of administrative decentralization in America?
美國的政治社團有幾種主要的類型？它們的目標是什麼？
What are the main types of associations in America? What are their aims?
在托克維爾的觀念中，什麼是民主的主要優點？什麼是民主的缺點？
What are the main advantages of democracy in Tocqueville's view? What are its disadvantages?
托克維爾認為多數暴政乃是美國自由的最大威脅？什麼是多數暴政？它是如何發生的？該如何避免或緩和它？
Tocqueville regarded tyranny of the majority as the greatest threat to liberty in America. What is tyranny of the majority? How does it come about? How can it be prevented or at least tempered?
托克維爾指出有助於美國維護民主共和的三個主要原因:好運、法律以及習俗。他所謂的習俗或者習慣是什麼意思？（第一卷，第二部份，第九章，287頁）其中哪一個原因最具影響力，為什麼？
【譯註：所謂「好運」托克維爾所指的是上帝為美國人安排的獨特的、幸運的地理環境；沒有強鄰，毋需擔心大戰、入侵，亦不需要鉅額的稅收和軍隊；沒有可以影響全國的巨大首都等等條件】
He identifies three main factors that have helped maintain a democratic republic in the United States: good luck, laws, and mores. What does he mean by mores or "habits of the heart"? (Vol. 1, Part 2, chapter 9, p. 287) Which of these factors is most influential, and why?
宗教是如何直接或者間接的促成美國民主共和的持續？
How has religion contributed directly or indirectly to the maintenance of a democratic republic in America?
在托克維爾的觀點裡，奴隸制在哪些方面對多數白人無益？對於黑人的奴役和美洲原住民的消滅，他提出怎樣的批評？對於奴隸制廢止後美國的種族關係，托克維爾提出了怎樣的預期？
In what ways is slavery bad for the white majority in Tocqueville's view? What judgments does he offer about the enslavement of blacks and the extermination of Native Americans in America? What did he predict about race relations in America after the abolition of slavery?
托克維爾對於自由的觀念為何？
What is Tocqueville's conception of liberty?
為什麼在民主國家中，相對於自由人民對於平等有更多的熱愛？這種對於平等的熱情如何威脅自由的存在？
Why in democratic nations do people "love" or have passion for equality more than liberty? How does this passion for equality threaten liberty?
托克維爾討論平等會產生個人主義，進而會導致專制政治。這樣的過程如何產生？托克維爾如何描述民主國家必須小心的專制政治？
Tocqueville discusses how equality of conditions can breed "individualism", which in turn leads to despotism. How does this development occur? How does Tocqueville characterize the "despotism" that democratic nations have to fear?
什麼是”正確理解的私益原則?”它又如何對抗個人主義?
What is "the doctrine of self-interest properly understood"? How does it combat individualism?
一般而言，民主對於一般人的舉止和習俗有何影響？又，民主對主奴之間的關係、對家庭、對女性的教育有何影響？
What is the influence of democracy on the manners or mores of the people in general and on relations between master and servant, on the family, and on the education of girls in particular?
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結論
Concluding Lecture |
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期末考
Final Exam |
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